Trafficking Risk in Sub-Saharan African Supply Chains
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Benin Country Overview
Politics
Benin is a presidential republic in western Africa.[1] It is considered one of the most stable democracies in sub-Saharan Africa, having held several elections judged to be free and fair since the country’s transition to democracy in 1991.[2] In March 2016, President Patrice Talon was elected for a five-year term.[3] In April 2021, Talon won a second term election with 86% of the vote, even though, according to Freedom House, the major opposition candidates had been arrested or forced into exile leaving to the competition only two weak opponents. Moreover, in the aftermath of the presidential elections the same document reports arbitrary arrests of activists and opposition figures. Judicial independence of the Constitutional Court was questioned when President Talon appointed his personal lawyer as the Court’s president in 2018. [4]
Economy
Benin is classified by the World Bank as a lower middle-income country, and in 2021 has experienced a 7.2 percent GDP growth. [5]The economy is characterized by a high degree of informality, with 90 percent of youth aged 15 to 29 employed in the informal labor sector.[6]The country’s key commodity exports are cotton, cashews, and shea butter.[7] Under President Talon’s administration, Benin has begun engaging in a development plan which seeks to improve infrastructure, education, agriculture, and governance. Considerable developments have been reported to take place in electricity generation which has helped to decrease blackouts on a national scale. [8]Benin’s economy relies heavily on informal re-export and transit trade with Nigeria, which accounts for nearly 20 percent of GDP. The country’s economy is therefore vulnerable to trade shocks in Nigeria. [9]
Social/Human Development
Although Benin has experienced stable GDP growth over the past two decades, poverty remains widespread with a national poverty rate of 46.4 percent in 2018.[10] Benin is placed in the low human development category and was given a score of 0.525 in 2022, placing it 166 out of 191 countries and territories.[11]Nearly 65 percent of Benin’s population is under the age of 25.[12]
Poverty, coupled with unemployment, increased living costs, and limited access to resources has led to the migration of some Beninese to other West African countries, including Nigeria and Côte d’Ivoire. [13]However, Benin continues to attract migrants from other West African countries due to its relative political stability. [14]
U.S. Department of State TIP Report Summary (2019)
U.S. Department of State TIP Ranking: Tier 2
According to the Trafficking in Persons Report, trafficking risk may be found among children from low-income families in services that include domestic servitude, markets, and agriculture. Girls are reportedly exploited in sex trafficking in urban areas. Criminal groups have been reported as traffickers of women and children for the purpose of forced labor in neighboring countries to Benin and Gulf Cooperation Council countries. Although the Government has been making significant efforts to prevent trafficking and to identify and protect victims, it doesn’t fully meet minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking.
Migrant and Other Vulnerable Populations
Benin has a negative net migration. [15] The largest source countries for migrants in 2019 were Togo, Nigeria, Niger, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Burkina Faso, and Congo.
The top destination countries for migrants from Benin in 2020 were Nigeria, Togo, Côte d’Ivoire, Gabon, France, Niger, Ghana, Congo, and Burkina Faso. [17]
There were an estimated 2,136 persons of concern in Benin in 2022, including 1,352 refugees and 784 asylum seekers. [19]
Exports and Trade
Benin’s top exports in 2021 were cotton, edible fruit and nuts, oil seeds, iron and steel, mineral fuels, and oils.[20]
[21]
The top importers for all goods from Benin were Bangladesh, India, China, and Vietnam. [22]
[23]
Benin was the 177th largest supplier of goods to the United States in in 2019. The largest exported product to the U.S. was edible fruit and nuts, specifically cocoa, cashew, and Brazil nuts. [24]
Trafficking in Persons Risk Factors Analysis
Legal/Policy Risk Factors
LEVEL OF LEGAL PROTECTION FOR CIVIL LIBERTIES AND WORKERS’ RIGHTS
Freedom of Association
In Benin, the law provides for the right of workers to form and join independent unions, except for certain civil servants and public employees. New unions are required to register with the Ministry of Interior, a process that can take up to three months, and in cases of denied permission, unions do not have recourse to a court. The law does not clearly define the grounds on which approval or denial of a trade union registration is granted. [25]An estimated 75 percent of all salaried employees are members of trade unions, although this may represent only a minority of the total workforce, since most economic activity is reportedly organized within the informal sector. [26]
The law provides for the right of workers to bargain collectively and to strike but is carefully regulated. Strikes require notification to the government prior to being organized, and are restricted to a maximum duration of about 1 and a half weeks per year for all employees. Strikes are also liable to be prohibited by the government under the condition that the activity negatively influences the economy or national interest. [27]Anti-union discrimination is not permitted by the law. Labor laws seek to provide reinstatement for workers in the instance of being fired for union activity. The U.S. Department of State noted that civil servants, public employees, domestic workers, agricultural workers, migrant workers, those working in export processing zones, and those working in the informal sector do not receive legal protections related to labor. [28]
Working Conditions
Minimum wage was increased by the government in 2014, from CFA 30,000 (USD 51) per month to CFA 40,000 (USD 68) per month, even though, according to U.S. Department of State, a significant part of workforce in the informal sector does not benefit from minimum wage scales. The labor code establishes a workweek between 40 and 60 hours, with at least one 24-hour period of rest each week. Domestic and agricultural workers tend to work up to 70 hours or more each week. The law does not provide legal protections for a worker’s employment status in situations where they are required to remove themselves from unsafe working conditions. [29]
Discrimination
The constitution of Benin prohibits discrimination with respect to employment and occupation in several areas but does not explicitly prohibit discrimination based on sexual orientation, gender identity, and HIV status or other communicable diseases. [30]Women often experience discrimination in certain occupations and do not have the same wages as men. Workers with disabilities face discrimination in the hiring process, as well. Prohibitions of discrimination do not apply to the informal sector, which employs approximately 90 percent of the Beninese work force. [31]
The Government of Benin prohibits forced or compulsory labor, apart from imprisonment with compulsory labor. [32]According to the U.S. Department of State, evidence of forced labor occurs especially in the agricultural, artisanal mining, and fishing sectors; but is found, too, in domestic servitude and bonded labor by children.
Child Labor
The law prohibits the employment or apprenticeship of children under the age of 14. Children between the ages of 12 and 14 may engage in domestic, temporary, or seasonal work, as long as it does not interfere with compulsory education. [33]Vidomegon is a widespread social practice in Benin, whereby a child is sent to live as servant to a wealthier home, with the purpose of providing them with educational opportunities. This practice, however, has recently been taken up by child traffickers, who go around villages to collect children to sell them. This has made Benin one of the major suppliers of illicit child labor. Children as young as seven work in small businesses and construction sites for long hours and with inadequate food, in hopes of receiving an education in return (however, this is not always guaranteed). The government is reported to not enforce the law effectively. The total number of workplace inspections conducted is not available, and there were no reports in 2021 of any prosecutions or convictions. [34]
According to Freedom House, NGOs and human rights groups generally operate freely, even though as of 2021 activists have been arrested in increasing numbers. In April 2021, Talon was reelected as President, however, authorities had arrested or forced his political opponents into exile. In the aftermath of the presidential elections, there have been several arrests of activists and opposition figures going (although the number is not very clear, estimates vary from 36 to 150 people). As a result, the score reported on the specific matter from Freedom House declined from 4 to 3. [35]
Ratification of ILO Conventions Related to Human Trafficking or Rights of Workers and Migrants
[36]
Use of Export Processing Zones (EPZs)
The U.S. Department of State reported that a Free Trade Zone near the Benin-Nigeria border is one of three Free Trade Zones in the nation that remains currently active.
It was reported that workers in export processing zones are excluded from relevant legal protections. [37]
Political Risk Factors
POLITICAL INSTABILITY OR CONFLICT
Benin scored a 72.5 in the 2022 Fragile States Index, placing it in the “Warning” category, and was ranked 76th out of 179 countries. [38]Freedom House characterized Benin as one of the most stable democracies in sub-Saharan Africa. [39]
LEVEL OF CRIME AND VIOLENCE
The World Economic Forum Global Competitiveness Report ranked Benin at 88 out of 141 for organized crime. [40]
LEVEL OF CORRUPTION
The Transparency International Corruption Perception Index scores Benin as a 43 out of 100, where zero signals “Highly Corrupt” and 100 signals “Very Clean.” Benin is ranked 72 out of 180 countries on that index. [41]According to the U.S. Department of State, officials engaging in corruption with impunity was reported as a widespread issue. The judicial system was reportedly susceptible to corruption at all levels. [42]
Socio-Economic Risk Factors
LEVEL OF NATIONAL ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
Benin scored low in the human development category, according to the UN Human Development Index (HDI), with a rank of 166 out of 191 countries and a score of 0.525. Since 1990, Benin’s HDI value changed from 0,359 to 0,525, which corresponds to a 46.2% growth. [43]
LEVEL AND EXTENT OF POVERTY
Benin has a relatively high level of poverty, with 66.8 percent of the population determined to be living in multidimensional poverty according to the UN. [44] When adjusted for inequality, the HDI falls to 0.334, a loss of 36.4 percent due to inequality. [45]Benin’s gross national income (GNI) per capita was USD 1,350 in 2021.[46]
DEGREE OF GENDER INEQUALITY
The UNDP Gender Development Index ranked Benin 166 out of 191 countries for gender inequality in 2021, with a GDI value of 0.880. [47]In 2020, the World Economic Forum’s Global Gender Gap Report ranked Benin 138 out of 146. [48]
The literacy rate among females is 31.1 percent, compared to a literacy rate of 54 percent of all Beninese males. [49]
According to the constitution, women and men have equal rights to own and administer non-land assets. However, customary practices are an obstacle to the fulfillment of this right. Inheritance is the primary means of accessing land in Benin, and under customary law only men have the right to inherit land. [50]Only 13 percent of all land acquired with tenure belongs to women.
Women have limited access to financial services because obtaining a loan is largely contingent upon owning land as collateral. [51]
Women reportedly face discrimination in employment. Most women occupy jobs in the informal economic sector, and while some have been noticed to take on activities typically assigned to men, there is a prominent rural/urban divide concerning informal labor. Socio-cultural tendencies continue to enforce gender divisions of labor which typically assign men to income-making positions while women are relegated to household duties. Women have reportedly experienced discrimination in recruitment practices for higher level positions. [52]
Documented Trafficking and Trafficking Risk in Key Commodity Supply Chains
Cotton
COTTON OVERVIEW
Cotton plays a central role in Benin’s economy, contributing to about 12 percent of the country’s GDP.[53] Benin was one of the first West African countries to reform its cotton sector in the 1990s, which overlapped with a decline in sectoral performance.[54] Although the sector had been privatized, the government took temporary control of the sector in 2012, before handing control back to a private association. Long-term issues identified in the sector include lack of ginning capacity and poor infrastructure, especially among storage facilities. [55] As in the rest of West Africa, nearly all cotton farmers in Benin are smallholder farmers.
DOCUMENTED TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS RISK FACTORS IN COTTON PRODUCTION
In Benin, during 2021 moderate advancements were made by the Government to eliminate child labor. A social service inspection by the Ministry of Social Affairs, has for instance, removed 400 children from child labor. [56] The production of cotton, (Benin’s top export crop), involves some of the worst forms of child labor, including because of human trafficking. According to U.S. Department of Labor, 24.7 percent of children aged 5 to 14 years old work, and a 16.8 percent of children in the same age range combine work and school. [57] In cotton production, children often work below the minimum age (which is 14 years old), which sometimes results in being exposed to pesticides. Due to the smallholder nature of cotton farming in Benin, child work on family farms is relatively common. Benin reportedly has low rates of school attendance in cotton growing regions, indicating that many children are informally employed on family farms or at plantations. [58] Some children working for these farmers may not be paid until the end of the harvest cycle, which can bind them to their jobs and make it nearly impossible to return home. Payment may be deferred even longer, potentially beyond the first year, and the end wages are often much less than promised by the recruiters.[59]
Cashews
CASHEW OVERVIEW
190,000 hectares are used for cashew production, and the sector is still growing rapidly. The bulk of exports consist of raw, unprocessed cashews. [60] There are an estimated 200,000 cashew farmers in the country. Most cashew farms are under 1.5 hectares, although some are as large as five hectares. Only five percent of cashew plantations are owned by women. [61]
DOCUMENTED TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS RISKS FACTORS IN CASHEW PRODUCTION
Little information is available on labor in cashew production, but the U.S. Department of State has noted trafficking in commercial agriculture in Benin more broadly. [62]
Related Resources
Resources for Understanding Legal and Policy-Related Risk Factors
Endnotes
[1] Central Intelligence Agency. The World Factbook: Benin. 2023. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bn.html
[2] Freedom House. Freedom in the World2022: Benin.https://freedomhouse.org/country/benin/freedom-world/2022
[3] U.S Department of State. 2021 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Benin.2021 . https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/benin/
[4] Freedom House. Freedom in the World2022 : Benin.2022 https://freedomhouse.org/country/benin/freedom-world/2022
[5] World Bank. Benin. http://data.worldbank.org/country/benin
[6] U.S. Department of State. 2019Investment Climate Statements: Benin.2019.https://www.state.gov/reports/2019-investment-climate-statements/benin/
[7] Central Intelligence Agency. The World Factbook: Benin. 2023. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bn.html
[8] Central Intelligence Agency. The World Factbook: Benin.2023 . https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bn.html
[9] World Bank. Benin: Overview. http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/benin/overview
[10] World Bank. Benin: Overview. http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/benin/overview
[11] United Nations Development Programme. Human Development Report 2019: Benin. 2019. http://hdr.undp.org/sites/all/themes/hdr_theme/country-notes/BEN.pdf
[12] Central Intelligence Agency. The World Factbook: Benin.2023 . https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bn.html
[13] Central Intelligence Agency. The World Factbook: Benin.2023 . https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bn.html
[14] Central Intelligence Agency.The World Factbook: Benin.2023.https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bn.html
[15] World Bank. Net Migration: Benin.http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SM.POP.NETM?locations=BJ
[16] United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. International Migrant Stock 2019. https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/data/estimates2/estimates19.asp
[17] United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. International Migrant Stock 2019.https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/data/estimates2/estimates19.asp
[18] United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. International Migrant Stock 2019. https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/data/estimates2/estimates19.asp
[19] United Nations Refugee Agency. UNHCR Population Statistics Database. http://popstats.unhcr.org/en/overview
[20] International Trade Centre. List of products exported by Benin. 2018. https://www.trademap.org/Product_SelCountry_TS.aspx?nvpm=
[21] International Trade Centre. List of products exported by Benin.2018.https://www.trademap.org/Product_SelCountry_TS.aspx?nvpm=
[22] International Trade Centre. List of products exported by Benin. 2018. https://www.trademap.org/Product_SelCountry_TS.aspx?nvpm=
[23] International Trade Centre. List of products exported by Benin. 2018. https://www.trademap.org/Product_SelCountry_TS.aspx?nvpm=
[24] Office of the United States Trade Representative. Benin.https://ustr.gov/countries-regions/africa/west-africa/benin
[25] U.S Department of State. 2021 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Benin.2021 https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/benin/
[26] U.S. Department of State. 2019 Investment Climate Statements: Benin. 2019. https://www.state.gov/reports/2019-investment-climate-statements/benin/
[27] U.S Department of State. 2021 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Benin.2021 https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/benin/
[28] U.S Department of State. 2021 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Benin.2021 . https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/benin/
[29] U.S Department of State. 2021 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Benin.2021 . https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/benin/
[30] U.S Department of State. 2021 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Benin.2021 . https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/benin/
[31] U.S Department of State. 2021 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Benin.2021 . https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/benin/
[32] U.S Department of State. 2021 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Benin.2021 . https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/benin/
[33] U.S Department of State. 2021 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Benin.2021.https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/benin/
[34] U.S Department of State. 2021 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Benin.2021 https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/benin/
[35] Freedom House. Freedom in the World 2022 : Benin.2022 . https://freedomhouse.org/country/benin/freedom-world/2022
[36] International Labour Organization (ILO). Ratifications for Benin. http://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=1000:11200:0::NO:11200:P11200_COUNTRY_ID:103028
[37] U.S Department of State. 2021 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Benin.2021 . https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/benin/
[38] The Fund for Peace. Fragile States Index: Benin.2022 .https://fragilestatesindex.org/country-data/
[39] Freedom House. Freedom in the World 2019: Benin. 2019. https://freedomhouse.org/country/benin/freedom-world/2019
[40] World Economic Forum. The Global Competitiveness Report 2019. http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_TheGlobalCompetitivenessReport2019.pdf
[41] Transparency International. Corruption Perceptions Index2022 : Benin.2022 . https://www.transparency.org/en/cpi/2022/index/ben
[42] U.S Department of State. 2021 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Benin.2021 . https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/benin/
[43] United Nations Development Programme. Human Development Report 2019: Inequalities in Human Development in the 21st Century; Benin. 2019. http://hdr.undp.org/sites/all/themes/hdr_theme/country-notes/BEN.pdf
[44] United Nations Development Programme. Human Development Report 2022 : Inequalities in Human Development in the 21st Century; Benin. 2022 . https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/hdp-document/2022mpireportenpdf.pdf
[45] United Nations Development Programme. Human Development Report2022 : Inequalities in Human Development in the 21st Century; Benin.2022 . http://hdr.undp.org/sites/all/themes/hdr_theme/country-notes/es/BEN.pdf
[46] The World Bank. 2021. GNI per capita Atlas Method- Benin. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GNP.PCAP.CD?locations=BJ
[47] United Nations Development Programme.Gender Development Index (GDI).2017.http://hdr.undp.org/en/composite/GDI
[48] World Economic Forum. Global Gender Gap Report2022 .2022 . https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GGGR_2022.pdf
[49] World Economic Forum. Global Gender Gap Report2022 .2022 . https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GGGR_2022.pdf
[50] Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) Development Center. Social Institutions & Gender Index (SIGI): Benin.2020.https://www.genderindex.org/wp-content/uploads/files/datasheets/2019/BJ.pdf
[51] Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) Development Center. Social Institutions & Gender Index (SIGI): Benin. 2019. https://www.genderindex.org/wp-content/uploads/files/datasheets/2019/BJ.pdf
[52] Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) Development Center. Social Institutions & Gender Index (SIGI): Benin. 2019. https://www.genderindex.org/wp-content/uploads/files/datasheets/2019/BJ.pdf
[53] Sasse, Allegresse. “Benin cotton sector wary as government hands back control.” Reuters. May 17, 2016. http://af.reuters.com/article/africaTech/idAFKCN0Y81Y4
[54] Gergely, Nicolas. World Bank. The Cotton Sector of Benin. 2009. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/487161468013850723/The-cotton-sector-of-Benin
[55] Sasse, Allegresse. “Benin cotton sector wary as government hands back control.” Reuters. May 17, 2016. http://af.reuters.com/article/africaTech/idAFKCN0Y81Y4
[56] U.S. Department of State. 2021 Trafficking in Persons Report: Benin.2021 . .S. https://www.dol.gov/agencies/ilab/resources/reports/child-labor/benin
[57] U.S. Department of Labor. 2021 List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor.2021 . https://www.dol.gov/agencies/ilab/resources/reports/child-labor/benin
[58] Afrol News. “Labour Standards violated in Benin, Burkina Faso, Mali.” June 30, 2015. http://www.afrol.com/articles/13491
[59] de Lange, Albertine. “Going to Kompienga.” A Study of Child Labour Migration and Trafficking in Burkina Faso’s South-Eastern Cotton Sector. Amsterdam: International Research on Working Children (IREWOC). August 2006. https://childhub.org/en/system/tdf/library/attachments/lange_d_alb06gtkompienga_061106.pdf?file=1&type=node&id=17645
[60] African Cashew Initiative. Analysis of the Benin Cashew Sector Value Chain. 2010. http://www.africancashewinitiative.org/files/files/downloads/aci_benin_gb_150.pdf
[61] African Cashew Initiative. Analysis of the Benin Cashew Sector Value Chain. 2010. http://www.africancashewinitiative.org/files/files/downloads/aci_benin_gb_150.pdf
[62] U.S. Department of State. 2019Trafficking in Persons Report: Benin.2019.https://www.state.gov/reports/2019-trafficking-in-persons-report-2/benin/
Trafficking Risk in Sub-Saharan African Supply Chains
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