Trafficking Risk in Sub-Saharan African Supply Chains

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Somalia Country Overview

Politics

Somalia is a federal parliamentary republic in West Africa.[1]  In February 2017, Mohamed Abdullahi Mohamed “Farmaajo” was elected President of Somalia. Although his four-year term ended in February 2021, he continues as acting President through a controversial parliamentary ruling that has repeatedly delayed elections in 2022. The delays sparked violent protests in the capital, Mogadishu.[2] The presidential election process is tentatively scheduled to be completed on March 31, 2022.[3]  The international community has voiced concerns over the extension of President Mohamed’s term and the worsening political stability in the country.[4] Amid the election controversy, Somalia continues to battle the Al-Shabab militant group whose deadly attacks aim to disrupt political stability.[5]

Economy

Somalia is classified by the World Bank as a low-income economy.[6] In 2020, Somalia’s annual gross domestic product (GDP) growth is 2.44 percent[7]a lower percentage than the World Bank projected due to several economic interruptions including COVID-19, drought, floods, and locust infections.[8] Alongside these interruptions, Somalia’s overall economic infrastructure has been largely destroyed by the ongoing conflict in the country. According to the CIA, formalized economic growth has not expanded outside of the country’s capital city, Mogadishu, and a few of the regional capitals.[9] The informal economy comprises approximately 95 percent of Somalia’s economy and is largely involved in livestock, remittance/money transfer companies, and telecommunications.[10] Livestock trade accounts for a bulk of the country’s GDP, and a large portion of export revenue. Using mirror data, Somalia’s top exports in 2020 were gold, live animals, fish, lac, and oil seeds.[11] Of Somalia’s total labor force, approximately 70 percent is employed in agriculture according to the CIA.[12]

Somalia is a heavily indebted nation, but in March 2020 the country regained access to regular concessional financing to work towards debt relief.[13] According to the U.S. Department of State’s 2021 Investment Climate Statements, President Farmaajo’s” administration pursued several economic reforms that broadened the government’s tax base and strengthened the tax administration which resulted in steady increases in government revenue for the first time in two decades.[14] Pertaining to foreign investment in Somalia, the U.S. Department of State also notes that investors face challenges from Somalia’s lack of comprehensive legal framework, endemic corruption, and ineffective civil judicial system.[15]

Social/Human Development

Out of Somalia’s near 12 million population, 85 percent are Somali. The remaining 15 percent of the population consists of Bantu and other non-Somali ethnic groups, including 30,000 Arabs, largely originating from the Arab Peninsula.[16] According to the U.S. Department of State, the minority groups in the country are “disproportionately subjected to killings, torture, rape, kidnapping for ransom, and looting of land and property with impunity by faction militias and majority clan members.”[17] Minority groups live in deep poverty and face discrimination in numerous activities including economic and judicial.[18]

Education is not free, universal, or compulsory in Somalia, despite the law stipulating such provisions. As a result, the U.S. Department of State reports that approximately one-half of the school-age population remained out of school.[19] Of the information available by the United Nation Development Programme (UNDP), about 68.6 percent of Somalia’s population lives below the international income poverty line of USD 1.90 (in purchasing power parity terms) per day.[20] Only approximately 42 percent of the population is employed and 25 percent of Somalia’s youth ages 15 to 24 are neither employed nor in school.[21]

U.S. Department of State TIP Report Summary (2023)

U.S. Department of State TIP Ranking: Special Case

According to the 2021 Trafficking in Persons Report, trafficking risk among children may be found in agriculture, herding livestock, crushing stones, or the construction industry. The U.S. Department of State considered Somalia to be a special case for the nineteenth year in a row; therefore, the country lacks an official TIP ranking.[22]

 

Migrant and Other Vulnerable Populations

Somalia has a negative net migration of 200 thousand.[23] About 0.4 percent of the country’s population, roughly 58,590 persons, are migrants.[24] In 2020, the largest source countries for migrants in Somalia were Ethiopia and Yemen, with a small number from Eritrea. However, the majority of migrants originate from “Other” which indicates that the data is unknown or incompatible with United Nation’s (UN) categorization.[25]

The top destination countries for migrants from Somalia are Kenya, Ethiopia, Yemen, the United Kingdom, and the United States of America.[27]

Exports and Trade

Using mirror data, Somalia’s top exports in 2020 were gold, live animals, fish, lac, and oil seeds.[29]

According to mirror data, the top importers of all goods from Somalia in 2020 were United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, Japan, Bulgaria, and Bahrain.[31]

Trafficking in Persons Risk Factors Analysis

Legal/Policy Risk Factors

LEVEL OF LEGAL PROTECTION FOR CIVIL LIBERTIES AND WORKERS’ RIGHTS
Freedom of Association

Somali law provides for the rights of workers to organize and join trade unions, to engage in collective bargaining, and to conduct legal strikes. However, the law does not address antiunion discrimination or require the reinstatement of workers fired for union activity. The U.S. Department of State reports that the government did not effectively enforce the law. As of December 2020, no labor inspections were carried out and penalties for violations were rarely applied.[33] Somalia’s largest trade union, the Federation of Somali Trade Unions (FESTU), does note that labor relations somewhat improved in 2020. According to the U.S. Department of State, the FESTU alleges “there were no instances of government interference with union activities, reflecting an improved environment for labor rights and increased cooperation between the labor movement and government.”[34]

Working Conditions

There is no national minimum wage in Somalia. The legal workweek is 48 hours with an overtime limit of 12 hours a week. Premium pay for overtime is required by law and 15 days of annual leave, in addition to nine paid national holidays, is mandated. However, the U.S. Department of State reports that the Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs is ineffective at enforcing the law.[35] Although the ministry has established a labor inspectorate, no inspections took place in 2020. The FESTU claims that the laws on occupational health and safety set by the ministry are inefficient to protect workers. Violations of working condition regulations are widespread in both the public and private sectors. Since labor regulations only apply to the formal sector, the approximately 95 percent of workers engaged in the informal sector are unprotected.[36] The FESTU has previously attempted to encourage organizing in the informal sector to bring about increased protection, but little progress has been made.[37]

Discrimination

According to the U.S. Department of State, Somali law prohibits discrimination based on race, sex, disability, political opinion, color, language, and social status, but does not prohibit on the basis of religion, age, national origin, social origin, stateless status, sexual orientation or gender identity, or HIV-positive status or other communicable diseases.[38] The U.S. Department of State notes that the government did not enforce the anti-discrimination laws.

Women face legal barriers to employment, and persons with disabilities are discriminated against in hiring practices and in workplace accessibility. Minority ethnic groups also face discrimination in employment. Discrimination also occurs along the basis of clan relationships in numerous industries.[39]

Forced Labor

The law prohibits forced labor, slavery, servitude, and trafficking for any purpose. However, the government did not effectively enforce the law, according to the U.S. Department of State.[40] The U.S. Department of State reports that forced labor occurred in Somalia in 2020 and the groups most vulnerable to forced labor include internally displaced persons (IDPs), minority ethnic groups, residents in Al-Shabab-controlled territories, and youth.[41]

Child Labor

The 2012 provisional constitution states, “No child may perform work or provide services that are not suitable for the child’s age or create a risk to the child’s health or development in any way.”[42] The constitution defines a child as being younger than 18 years of age, but does not stipulate a legal minimum working age. Although a pre‐1991 labor code that sets the legal minimum working age at 15 remains active, the U.S. Department of State reports that the labor code provisions were not enforced.[43]

Child labor is widespread in Somalia, according to the U.S. Department of State. It’s a common practice for Somali children to work within their own households or family businesses. As a result of trafficking, children are forced to work in agriculture, domestic work, herding livestock, crushing stones, or the construction industry.[44] Additionally, Al-Shabab commonly recruits children as soldiers and other military support roles.

Civil Society Organizations

The law provides for freedom of association, but government and regional authorities often restricted their actualization. The U.S. Department of State reports that persons outside of Al- Shabab controlled areas in the southern and central regions of Somalia could freely join civil society organizations that covered a wide breadth of issues.[45] Within Al-Shabab-controlled territories, however, international nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) were largely barred from operating. According to Freedom House, local civil society groups, NGOs, UN Agencies often face dangerous and difficult working conditions.[46]

Ratification of ILO Conventions Related to Human Trafficking or Rights of Workers and Migrants

International Labour Organization (ILO) Conventions 181 and 97 are scheduled to enter force on March 8, 2022.[47]

Political Risk Factors

POLITICAL INSTABILITY OR CONFLICT

Somalia has a long history of political instability and conflict. The 2021 Fragile States Index ranks Somalia second out of 179 countries, placing it in the highest “Alert” category.[48] The 2011 Provisional Constitution and the formation of the Federal Government of Somalia (FGS) in 2012 marked a turning point in Somalia’s political history towards greater stability.[49] Somalia continues to struggle with the peaceful and fair transition of power as evidenced by the controversial 2021 presidential election that saw delays and violence.[50]

Many parts of the country remain outside of FGS control, with the Islamist insurgent group al- Shabaab actively contesting government control. Al-Shabaab maintains strongholds in rural areas in the south but carries out violent attacks in all regions of Somalia.[51] Conflict involving the government, militias, and al-Shabaab results in death, injury, and displacement of civilians. Fighting among clans and sub-clans is also frequent.[52]

LEVEL OF CRIME AND VIOLENCE

The U.S. Department of State reported in 2021 that the crime level in Somalia is critical.[53] Crime is pervasive throughout the country and attacks by al-Shabaab, clan militias, and other armed groups affect businesses throughout Somalia. Political violence, civil unrest, terrorist activity, clan violence, and transnational crime cause severe human rights abuses every year.[54]

STATE PERSECUTION

Nationality in Somalia is derived at birth from a Somali national father, not from the Somali mother nor from being born within the country’s territory.[55] Consequently, only a small percentage of births are registered in the country. Additionally, minority ethnic groups face discrimination in employment, judicial proceedings, and access to public services.[56]

LEVEL OF CORRUPTION

Despite Somalia’s provisional constitution criminalizing several forms of corruption, corruption remains rampant in all sectors of the government. Transparency International’s Corruption Perception Index ranks Somalia 178 out of 180 countries and scores Somalia 13 out of 100, where a 0 signals “Highly Corrupt” and a 100 signals “Very Clean.”[57] The FGS has made some effort to address corruption by enacting a bill to allow the formation of an independent anti-corruption commission at both the state and federal levels. However, according to the U.S. Department of State, without a robust asset declaration mechanism, an updated penal code, and a functioning criminal justice system, anti-corruption efforts remain ad hoc, and there is little deterrence.”[58]

Socio-Economic Risk Factors

LEVEL OF NATIONAL ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

The United Nations has classified Somalia as a “least developed country” since 1971.[59] Economic development is impeded by political instability, civil unrest, terrorism, armed conflict, corruption, and natural disasters. Since 2013, Somalia’s GDP has steadily increased from 4.6 billion USD to 7.0 billion USD.[60]

LEVEL AND EXTENT OF POVERTY

Somalia has a high level of poverty with approximately 68.6 percent of the total population living below the income poverty line of 1.90 USD (in purchasing power parity terms) a day, according to the UNDP. AS of 2019, 85.9 percent of the total employed population of Somalia live on less than 3.20 USD (in purchasing power parity terms) a day.[61]

DEGREE OF GENDER INEQUALITY

According to the U.S. Department of State, women in Somalia do not have the same rights as men and are subject to subordination to men. Despite the law prohibiting against gender-based discrimination, women face barriers in credit, housing, politics, education, and employment.[62] The law only allows women to inherit one-half of the property their brothers are entitled to. Legal barriers prevent women from working the same hours as men and barring employment altogether in some industries. Men comprise approximately 66 percent of the total labor force, while women make up 34 percent.[63]

LANDLESSNESS AND DISPOSSESSION

There were approximately 2.2 million internally displaced persons (IDPs) in Somalia as of January 2022.[64] The United Nations Human Rights Council reports that conflict, insecurity, drought, and floods contribute to displacement in Somalia. According to the U.S. Department of State, forced evictions is also a serious issue and resulted in the re-displacement of nearly 98,000 IDPs from January to August in 2019. In the same year, the government at both the federal and municipal levels increased efforts to protect the rights of IDPs through new policies.[65]

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

Climate-related disasters contribute to the high number of IDPs in Somalia and constrain economic growth. Somalia has had a failed rainy season for three consecutive years impacting 90 percent of the country affecting nearly 3.2 million people. Water scarcity is threatening livestock—Somalia’s main economic sector. Data from the International Organization for Migration’s (IOM) Displacement Tracking Matrix (DTM) suggests that the worsening drought situation could displace over 1 million people by April 2022.[66] Floods and cyclones also contribute to widespread displacement; the UNHCR estimates 1.3 million people were displaced due to floods in 2021. In addition, locust infestations in the region regularly destroy crops. The IOM notes that IDPs and migrants are populations particularly in need of urgent assistance.[67]

Documented Trafficking and Trafficking Risk in Key Commodity Supply Chains

Livestock

LIVESTOCK OVERVIEW

Somalia’s second-largest export earner is live animals.[68] A large portion of the Somali population relies on the livestock sector for a source of income and food. Live animals are primarily shipped to Saudi Arabia.

DOCUMENTED TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS RISK FACTORS IN LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION

According to the U.S. Department of State, children are forced to work in herding livestock and in agriculture more broadly. The U.S. Department of State reports that child labor is widespread in Somalia, but more detailed information is unavailable.[69]

Related Resources

Resources for Understanding Legal and Policy-Related Risk Factors

Endnotes

[1] Central Intelligence Agency. The World Factbook: Somalia. February 2022. https://www.cia.gov/the-world- factbook/countries/somalia/
[2] Aljazeera. “Somalia’s leaders agree to hold delayed election by February 25.” January 9, 2022. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/1/9/somalias-leaders-agree-to-hold-delayed-election-by-february-25
[3] France24. “Somalia delays election process again as deadline lapses.” March 16, 2022. https://www.france24.com/en/live- news/20220316-somalia-delays-election-process-again-as-deadline-lapses

[4] United Nations. “Somalia: Elections must be finalized amid worsening drought, Security Council hears.” February 15, 2022. https://news.un.org/en/story/2022/02/1112022
[5] Omar, F. and Sheikh, A. “Car bomb targeting Somalia election delegates kills six.” Reuters. February 10, 2020. https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/car-bomb-targeting-somalia-election-delegates-kills-six-2022-02-10/

[6] World Bank. “World Bank Country and Lending Groups.” 2022. https://datahelpdesk.worldbank.org/knowledgebase/articles/906519-world-bank-country-and-lending-groups
[7] World Bank. “GDP growth (annual %) – Somalia.” Data. 2020. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG?locations=SO
[8] World Bank. “Country Overview – Somalia.” August 30, 2021. https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/somalia/overview#1
[9] Central Intelligence Agency. The World Factbook: Somalia. February 2022. https://www.cia.gov/the-world- factbook/countries/somalia/
[10] U.S. Department of State. “2020 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Somalia.” 2020. https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/somalia/
[11] International Trade Center. Trade Map. https://www.trademap.org/Country_SelProductCountry.aspx?nvpm=1%7c706%7c%7c%7c%7cTOTAL%7c%7c%7c2%7c1%7c2% 7c2%7c1%7c1%7c2%7c1%7c1%7c1
[12] Central Intelligence Agency. The World Factbook: Somalia. February 2022. https://www.cia.gov/the-world- factbook/countries/somalia/
[13] World Bank. “Country Overview – Somalia.” August 30, 2021. https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/somalia/overview#1

[14] U.S. Department of State. “2021 Investment Climate Statements: Somalia.” 2021. https://www.state.gov/reports/2021- investment-climate-statements/somalia/
[15] U.S. Department of State. “2021 Investment Climate Statements: Somalia.” 2021. https://www.state.gov/reports/2021- investment-climate-statements/somalia/
[16] Central Intelligence Agency. The World Factbook: Somalia. February 2022. https://www.cia.gov/the-world- factbook/countries/somalia/
[17] U.S. Department of State. “2020 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Somalia.” 2020. https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/somalia/
[18] U.S. Department of State. “2020 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Somalia.” 2020. https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/somalia/
[19] U.S. Department of State. “2020 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Somalia.” 2020. https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/somalia/
[20] United Nations Development Programme. “Human Development Reports.” https://hdr.undp.org/en/countries/profiles/SOM#
[21] United Nations Development Programme. “Human Development Reports.” https://hdr.undp.org/en/countries/profiles/SOM#
[22] U.S. Department of State. 2021 Trafficking in Persons Report. 2021. https://www.state.gov/wp- content/uploads/2021/09/TIPR-GPA-upload-07222021.pdf
[23] United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. “Migration Data Portal – Somalia.” 2020. https://www.migrationdataportal.org/international-data?i=stock_abs_&t=2020&cm49=706
[24] United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. “Migration Data Portal – Somalia.” 2020. https://www.migrationdataportal.org/international-data?i=stock_abs_&t=2020&cm49=706
[25] United Nations. “International Migrant Stock 2020 – Destination and Origin.” Population Division. 2020. https://www.un.org/development/desa/pd/content/international-migrant-stock
[26] United Nations. “International Migrant Stock 2020 – Destination and Origin.” Population Division. 2020. https://www.un.org/development/desa/pd/content/international-migrant-stock
[27] United Nations. “International Migrant Stock 2020 – Destination and Origin.” Population Division. 2020. https://www.un.org/development/desa/pd/content/international-migrant-stock
[28] United Nations. “International Migrant Stock 2020 – Destination and Origin.” Population Division. 2020. https://www.un.org/development/desa/pd/content/international-migrant-stock
[29] International Trade Center. Trade Map.

https://www.trademap.org/Country_SelProductCountry.aspx?nvpm=1%7c706%7c%7c%7c%7cTOTAL%7c%7c%7c2%7c1%7c2% 7c2%7c1%7c1%7c2%7c1%7c1%7c1
[30] International Trade Center. Trade Map. https://www.trademap.org/Country_SelProductCountry.aspx?nvpm=1%7c706%7c%7c%7c%7cTOT AL%7c%7c%7c2%7c1%7c2% 7c2%7c1%7c1%7c2%7c1%7c1%7c1

[31] International Trade Center. Trade Map. https://www.trademap.org/Country_SelProductCountry.aspx?nvpm=1%7c706%7c%7c%7c%7cTOTAL%7c%7c%7c2%7c1%7c2% 7c2%7c1%7c1%7c2%7c1%7c1%7c1
[32] International Trade Center. Trade Map. https://www.trademap.org/Country_SelProductCountry.aspx?nvpm=1%7c706%7c%7c%7c%7cTOTAL%7c%7c%7c2%7c1%7c2% 7c2%7c1%7c1%7c2%7c1%7c1%7c1
[33] U.S. Department of State. “2020 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Somalia.” 2020. https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/somalia/
[34] U.S. Department of State. “2020 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Somalia.” 2020. https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/somalia/
[35] U.S. Department of State. “2020 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Somalia.” 2020. https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/somalia/
[36] U.S. Department of State. “2020 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Somalia.” 2020. https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/somalia/
[37] International Trade Union Confederation. “Organizing informal sector workers in Somalia.” 2015. https://projects.ituc- csi.org/organizing-informal-sector-workers
[38] U.S. Department of State. “2020 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Somalia.” 2020. https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/somalia/
[39] U.S. Department of State. “2020 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Somalia.” 2020. https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/somalia/
[40] U.S. Department of State. “2020 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Somalia.” 2020. https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/somalia/
[41] U.S. Department of State. 2021 Trafficking in Persons Report. 2021. https://www.state.gov/wp- content/uploads/2021/09/TIPR-GPA-upload-07222021.pdf
[42] U.S. Department of State. “2020 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Somalia.” 2020. https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/somalia/
[43] U.S. Department of State. “2020 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Somalia.” 2020. https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/somalia/
[44] U.S. Department of State. 2021 Trafficking in Persons Report. 2021. https://www.state.gov/wp- content/uploads/2021/09/TIPR-GPA-upload-07222021.pdf
[45] U.S. Department of State. “2020 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Somalia.” 2020. https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/somalia/
[46] Freedom House. “Freedom in the World 2021 – Somalia.” 2020. https://freedomhouse.org/country/somalia/freedom- world/2021
[47] International Labour Organization. “Ratifications for Somalia.” 2022. https://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=NORMLEXPUB:11200:0::NO::P11200_COUNTRY_ID:103244
[48] Fragile State Index. “Country Dashboard – Somalia.” 2021. https://fragilestatesindex.org/country-data/
[49] World Bank. “Country Overview – Somalia.” August 30, 2021. https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/somalia/overview#1

[50] Aljazeera. “US announces sanctions for Somali officials after election delays.” February 26, 2022. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/2/26/us-announces-sanctions-for-somali-officials-after-election-delays
[51] Overseas Security Advisory Council. “Somalia Country Security Report.” U.S. Department of State Bureau of Diplomatic Security. September 9, 2021. https://www.osac.gov/Content/Report/75c31ca2-4fc4-45c6-bffb-1c780203ac4b
[52] U.S. Department of State. “2020 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Somalia.” 2020. https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/somalia/
[53] Overseas Security Advisory Council. “Somalia Country Security Report.” U.S. Department of State Bureau of Diplomatic Security. September 9, 2021. https://www.osac.gov/Content/Report/75c31ca2-4fc4-45c6-bffb-1c780203ac4b
[54] U.S. Department of State. “2020 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Somalia.” 2020. https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/somalia/
[55] U.S. Department of State. “2020 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Somalia.” 2020. https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/somalia/
[56] U.S. Department of State. “2020 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Somalia.” 2020. https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/somalia/

[57] Transparency International. “Corruption Perception Index 2021.” 2021. https://www.transparency.org/en/cpi/2021/index/som
[58] U.S. Department of State. “2021 Investment Climate Statements: Somalia.” 2021. https://www.state.gov/reports/2021- investment-climate-statements/somalia/
[59] United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. “UN list of least developed countries.” 2020. https://unctad.org/topic/least-developed-countries/list
[60] World Bank Data. “GDP (current US$) – Somalia.” 2020. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?locations=SO
[61] United Nations Development Programme. “Human Development Reports.” https://hdr.undp.org/en/countries/profiles/SOM#
[62] U.S. Department of State. “2020 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Somalia.” 2020. https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/somalia/
[63] United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. “General Profile: Somalia.” 2020. https://unctadstat.unctad.org/CountryProfile/GeneralProfile/en-GB/706/GeneralProfile706.pdf
[64] United Nations Human Rights Council. “CCCM Somalia Overview.” January 31, 2022. https://data2.unhcr.org/en/situations/cccm_somalia
[65] U.S. Department of State. “2020 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Somalia.” 2020. https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/somalia/
[66] International Organization for Migration. “Somalia – Drought Analysis 2021.” Displacement Tracking Matrix. https://displacement.iom.int/sites/default/files/public/reports/IOM_DTM_SOMALIA_Drought_Analysis_01_2022.pdf
[67] International Organization for Migration. “Intensifying Drought Threatens to Displace Over 1 Million People in Somalia.” January 25, 2022. https://www.iom.int/news/intensifying-drought-threatens-displace-over-1-million-people-somalia
[68] International Trade Center. Trade Map. https://www.trademap.org/Country_SelProductCountry.aspx?nvpm=1%7c706%7c%7c%7c%7cTOTAL%7c%7c%7c2%7c1%7c2%

[69] U.S. Department of State. 2021 Trafficking in Persons Report. 2021. https://www.state.gov/wp- content/uploads/2021/09/TIPR-GPA-upload-07222021.pdf

Trafficking Risk in Sub-Saharan African Supply Chains

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