Trafficking Risk in Sub-Saharan African Supply Chains
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Zambia Country Overview
Politics
Zambia is a constitutional republic in Southern Africa. In August 2016, the incumbent President, Edgar Chagwa Lungu of the Patriotic Front (PF), was re-elected by a tight margin. The 2016 election results were eventually considered free and fair by local and international observers, but with many voting irregularities cited.[1] The results were unsuccessfully challenged by the opposition party, United Party for National Development. Although the results were considered to be fair, limitations on free press and police action, and legal restrictions put in place before the election heavily favored the ruling, Patriotic Front party.[2] Limits on press freedom and political party intolerance during the election period sparked sporadic violence across the country.[3]
Economy
Zambia is classified by the World Bank as a lower middle-income economy.[4] Between 2004 and 2014 the economy grew by seven percent a year on average, making it one of the world’s fastest growing economies. Recent years have seen this growth decline to 2.8 percent and 3.3 percent in 2015 and 2016 respectively.[5] Growth in the Zambian economy was fueled in large part by investment from China, particularly in the copper sector, the largest segment of the Zambian export economy.[6] 70 percent of Zambian export value comes from the mining sector.[7] The more recent decline in growth is attributed to the reduction of copper prices, depreciation of the Zambian Kwacha, and reduced power generation. In 2015 copper prices decreased due to lower demand from China as well as the Democratic Republic of Congo surpassing Zambia as Africa’s largest copper producer.[8] The government of Zambia has announced its 7th National Development Plan 2017-2021, which calls for a fundamental shift in how resources are allocated. The goal is to create a diversified and resilient economy to help sustain growth.[9]
Social/Human Development
As of July 2020, Zambia has a population of about 17.4 million people, coming from over 70 different ethnic groups. The most populous ethnic groups are Bemba (21 percent), Tonga (13.6 percent), and Chewa (7.4 percent).[10] The 2016 Human Development Report scored Zambia an HDI of 0.579, ranking Zambia as a medium human development country. Zambia has seen consistent increases in its HDI from 0.398 in 1990 to 0.579 in 2015, and most recently 0.584 in 2019.[11] Because of insufficient data available, due to the COVID-19 Pandemic, the Global Hunger Index of 2020 provisionally categorized the hunger situation in Zambia as serious in lieu of ranking it in a worldwide context.[12]
U.S. Department of State TIP Report Summary (2023)
U.S. Department of State TIP Ranking: Tier 2
According to the Trafficking in Persons Report, trafficking risk may be found among women and children in export supply chains including agriculture, textile manufacturing, mining, construction, and small businesses such as bakeries. Chinese nationals are increasingly at risk of trafficking in the construction, mining, and service sectors. Zambian children are vulnerable to labor trafficking in illegal mining for the purpose of loading stolen copper onto trucks. Zambian children are also vulnerable to sex trafficking associated with the mining sector.
Migrant and Other Vulnerable Populations
Zambia has net negative migration; less than 1 percent of the population are migrants.[13] Though a country of origin could not be identified for many migrants to Zambia in 2019, the statistics that are available show that the largest source country for migrants to Zambia is the Democratic Republic of the Congo, followed by Angola, Zimbabwe, Malawi, and Republic of the Congo.[14] Other source countries include Rwanda, Burundi, Tanzania, and India.[15]
The top destination countries for migrants from Zambia are South Africa, Malawi, Czechia, the United Kingdom, and Zimbabwe.[16] According to the UNHCR, in 2018 Zambia hosted 72,151 individuals considered to be“persons of concern” with 44,283 of these individuals being refugees.[17] The UNHCR also reports that 92 percent of these refugees are Congolese.[18]
Exports and Trade
Zambia’s top exports in 2019 include copper, precious and semi-precious stones (such as emeralds, amethysts, garnets, and tourmaline), Earth stone, inorganic metals, and sugar.[19]
The top importers of goods from Zambia are Switzerland, China, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Singapore, and South Africa.[20]
Trafficking in Persons Risk Factors Analysis
Legal/Policy Risk Factors
LEVEL OF LEGAL PROTECTION FOR CIVIL LIBERTIES AND WORKERS’ RIGHTS
Freedom of Association
In Zambia, the law provides for the right of most workers to form and join independent unions, conduct legal strikes, and bargain collectively. Certain workers, such as police and military personnel are exempt. Trade unions consisting of 50 members or more are required to register with the Ministry of Labor and the process can take up to six months, which causes most unions to strike illegally to bypass procedural requirements.[21] The law requires unions to notify employers ten days in advance of planned action and demands that strike action does not exceed 14 days.[22] There is no law that protects workers from dismissal if they participate in an illegal strike, and a fine of 50,000 kwacha (USD 4,250) or 20,000 kwacha (USD 1,700) may be applied to the trade union or individual, respectively.[23]
Working Conditions
The law permits the Ministry of Labor and Social Security authority to set wages by sector. Foreign and migrant workers do not receive a minimum wage and are not protected by most labor laws.[24] The Ministry of Labor and Social Security is responsible for establishing and enforcing laws related to acceptable conditions of work yet health and safety standards are reportedly not effectively enforced, especially in the informal sector, due to staffing shortages regarding labor inspectors.[25]
Moreover, labor inspectors reportedly had difficulty accessing rural areas due to lack of transportation.[26] While workers are granted the right to remove themselves from workplace situations which compromise their health and safety, authorities have not effectively upheld this right and workers who protested their working conditions have faced dismissal in some cases.[27]
Discrimination
The law prohibits discrimination in employment based on race, sex, disability, political opinion, social origin, religion and language but the law does not apply to discrimination based on sexual orientation or gender identity.[28] It is reported that the government has not consistently enforced the law and there have been reports of discrimination against minority groups.[29] Migrant workers are excluded from legal protections unless they are documented.[30]
Forced Labor
The law prohibits all forms of forced or compulsory labor but exceptions are made in the event of a national emergency or disaster.[31] The government reportedly has not effectively upheld this law as it lacks adequate resources to investigate trafficking operations possibly related to the mining, construction, and agricultural sectors.[32]
Child Labor
In 2019, Zambia implemented the Employment Code Act which replaced several child labor regulations including the Employment Act and the Employment of Young Persons and Children Act.[33] The act allows children from the age of 13 to 15 to engage in “light work’ but has yet to formally define the term.[34] The minimum age for non-hazardous work was reinforced at 15 while the age for hazardous work was raised from 18 to 19.[35] Hazardous tasks are defined in legislation and include a wide range of activities including handling tobacco or cotton, fishing, lifting heavy loads, night work, long hours, and excavation, among others.[36]
Zambia’s Education Act provides free education through the seventh grade, but only requires primary education for children of “school-going age,” an age range that has yet to be defined by the Zambian government.[37] The primary completion rate is 80%.[38]
Civil Society Organizations
Non-governmental organizations are required to register and re-register every five years under the NGO Act. While some NGOs complied, others joined the Technical Working Group and lobbied to have the law repealed and replaced as they felt it restricted their right to freedom of association.[39]
Immigration Policies Limiting the Employment Options or Movement of Migrants
Refugees are required to obtain government permission to move or live outside of refugee camps, and permission is frequently granted. The government also limits refugees’ legal employment options to refugee camps, unless refugees obtain specific government authorization to work outside camps.[40] Migrant workers, unless documented, are not protected by most labor law protections and face discrimination in wages and working conditions.[41]
Ratification of ILO Conventions Related to Human Trafficking or Rights of Workers and Migrants
[42]
USE OF EXPORT PROCESSING ZONES (EPZs)
The Zambian Government created Multi-Facility Economic Zones (MFEZ) in 2007.[43] Investors in MFEZ receive waivers on customs duty on imported equipment, excise duty, and value added tax, among other concessions. There are three MFEZ’s currently in operation: the Lusaka South MFEZ, the Chinese-owned Chambishi MFEZ located in the Copperbelt, and the Lusaka East MFEZ located near Lusaka’s international airport.[44]
Political Risk Factors
POLITICAL INSTABILITY OR CONFLICT
Zambia scores an 84.5 on the 2020 Fragile State Index and ranks 41 out of 178 countries.[45] The election on August 2016 which reinstated Edgar Chagwa Lungu as president resulted in increased tension and violence between members of the ruling Patriotic Front (PF) and the opposition United Party for National Development (UPND).[46] The opposition United Party for National Development (UPND) leader Hakainde Hichilema claimed there was an attempt by the police to assassinate him by firing live ammunition at him and his supports during a rally in Sesheke.[47]
LEVEL OF CRIME AND VIOLENCE
The World Economic Forum Global Competitiveness Report ranked Zambia 79 out of 141 for organized crime and 123 out of 141 for reliability of police services. [48] [49]
LEVEL OF CORRUPTION
The Transparency International Corruption Perception Index scores Zambia a 33 out of 100, where 0 signals “Highly Corrupt” and 100 signals “Very Clean.” Zambia is ranked 117 out of 179 on that index.[50] Corruption among police is an emerging trend and of particular concern, in addition to corruption in education and health services.[51] For example, police have been observed using roadblocks to limit participation in political gatherings, especially during parliamentary by-elections and have also routinely extorted money and goods from motorists at roadblocks.[52] U.S. firms and the Zambian government have identified corruption as an obstacle to foreign direct investment.[53]
Socio-Economic Risk Factors
LEVEL OF NATIONAL ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
Zambia’s HDI value for 2019 is 0.584 which places the country in the medium development category, ranking it 146 out of 162 countries and territories.[54] When adjusted for inequality, however, the HDI falls to 0.401, a loss of 31.3 percent.[55] [56]
LEVEL AND EXTENT OF POVERTY
The most recent survey data that were publicly available for Zambia’s multidimensional poverty index (MPI) are from 2018.[57] In Zambia, 47.9 percent of the population (8,313 people) are multidimensionally poor while an additional 23.9 percent live near multidimensional poverty.[58]
DEGREE OF GENDER INEQUALITY
The UNDP Gender Inequality Index scored Zambia a 0.539 and ranked it 146 out of 189 countries.[59] Zambia has a two-tier system of land ownership consisting of both state and customary law.[60] Despite the Land Act of 1996 which guarantees women the right to be land owners, customary law is given equal validity where men dominate in the allocation, inheritance, and use of land.[61] Measures have been taken to reduce the inequality that women experience, such as a reinstatement of a previously enacted 30 percent quota on land allocation, but women continue to face difficulties obtaining sufficient credit to purchase land.[62]
The UN Committee on the Rights of the Child has expressed concerns that vulnerable children are being denied access to health and education, noting the imposition of primary school fees as a possible contributing factor as well as the discriminatory traditional attitudes resulting in high dropout rates among girls.[63]
LANDLESSNESS AND DISPOSSESSION
Zambia’s land tenure and titling system has led to incidents of land grabbing, particularly affecting vulnerable members of the community.[64] Land held under customary law (about 70 percent of the country’s land) has no title and only the chief can give consent to potential investors to lease the land.[65]
The Ministry of Lands has a stated goal of addressing challenges pertaining to the slow processing of title deeds by reforming land policy that will, among other things, demarcate land for special economic zones, or Multi-Facility Economic Zones (MFEZ). It is possible that this land reform could lead to dispossession as land is allocated for future MFEZ projects.[66]
Women Women are frequently dispossessed from their land by their deceased spouse’s family and are left with no legal recourse, as women are not guaranteed land ownership rights under customary law.[67]
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
Zambia was hit by a severe drought in April of 2016, which reduced water levels to a record low. Through the power generated by the hydro-electric Kariba Dam, Zambia has been able to provide its people, and some neighboring countries, with cheap and abundant electricity.[68]
Although the Kariba Dam has continued to function despite the drought, there are now concerns that lack of maintenance to the dam will result in dam failure which will cut thousands of Zambians and Zimbabweans off from electricity.[69]
Moreover, the drought led to blackouts that impacted the country’s productivity levels in both industrial and agricultural sectors.[70] Blackouts increased production costs in copper mines, Zambia’s main export, which led to thousands of workers being laid off in addition to a devaluation of copper as demand from China fell.[71]
Documented Trafficking and Trafficking Risk in Key Commodity Supply Chains
Copper
COPPER OVERVIEW
Zambia has the largest reserves of copper in Africa and copper plays a critical role in the country’s relatively undiversified economy.[72] The mines were privatized in the 2000s. Although mining activities have traditionally been concentrated in the area known as the “copper belt,” surveys suggest copper deposits in other regions as well.[73] Copper production requires high levels of financial investment. Because the price of copper is set in the market, production costs determine profit levels for investors. Many of the older mines in Zambia have been depleted near the surface, requiring greater investment to mine at greater depth.[74]
DOCUMENTED TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS RISK FACTORS IN COPPER PRODUCTION
According to the U.S. Department of State 2020 Trafficking in Persons Report, forced labor or forced child labor is involved in copper production in Zambia.[75] Human Rights Watch (HRW) has reported serious exploitation, including indicators of human trafficking, of adult Zambian workers in Chinese-state owned copper mines.[76]
In 2019, copper exports fell an additional 12.5 percent from 2018 figures due to a fall in global demand and a newly implemented tax scheme on mines.[77] This has caused already high rates of unemployment to rise.[78] The U.S. Department of State also reports that children in Zambia may be forced by gangs to load copper onto trucks in the copper belt region.[79]
Case Study: Trafficking Risk in the Zambian Copper Sector
A 2008 ILO report (Investigating forced labour and trafficking: Do they exist in Zambia?) found several indicators of forced labor among the general mining population in Zambia, which found that some workers in mines may be recruited through brokers, who may act abusively, particularly around withholding wages. The ILO also reported that mine workers need a valid certificate of health to work, which is paid for by the employer. In a number of cases, contractors withheld this certificate in order to stop the worker finding work elsewhere. Rapid appraisal research was carried out to probe whether this practice has continued and the degree to which it may bind workers to their jobs.
At the time of research, brokers reportedly continued to operate and tended to be engaged by sub-contractors to mining companies, leaving no official employment relationship between the mining company and workers hired on a casual basis. Less educated young people from urban areas are reportedly more likely to be engaged by these brokers, in part due to high rates of unemployment. These workers often lack written contracts and therefore are not fully informed of the conditions of their engagement.
The research found that the practice of withholding health certificates was ongoing and impressionistically perceived as a relatively common practice. Health certificates were reportedly held for up to six months (out of a 6-12 month engagement), preventing workers from seeking alternative employment during this time.
Researchers noted that, aside from the specific questions of health certificate withholding, general working conditions at mines, particularly those run by foreign companies continue to be poor, with high rates of occupational injury and disease. Wages at foreign-owned mines are reportedly lower than at other ventures – although they do clear the legal minimum wage. However, some conditions have reportedly improved since international attention in recent years; housing conditions for Chinese migrant workers and contract terms have reportedly been aligned with Zambian labor laws.
Researchers also confirmed that Jerabo gangs continue to be engaged in copper scavenging in mining dumpsites and that they gained control over these sites through corruption and bribes of local officials. Children and youth do work in copper scavenging in mines controlled by the Jerabo gangs. In general, youth in these mining areas lack any other viable livelihood opportunities, leaving copper scavenging as the only option.
Gemstones other than Diamonds
GEMSTONES OTHER THAN DIAMONDS OVERVIEW
Zambia is home to a wealth of precious and semi-precious stones, including emeralds, most notably. 20 percent of the world’s emeralds are mined in Zambia.[80] Other stones include amethyst, beryl, and garnets.[81] Both large scale commercial mines with hired workers and small-scale artisanal mines are present in the sector,[82] although small-scale mines are reportedly under-utilized as there are significant challenges in accessing the necessary capital.[83]
DOCUMENTED TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS RISKS FACTORS IN THE PRODUCTION OF GEMSTONES OTHER THAN DIAMONDS
The U.S. Department of Labor’s 2020 List of Goods Produced by Child Labor of Forced Labor notes that various gems are mined with child labor in Zambia.[84] It is estimated that illegal mining accounts for 40 percent of emerald production.[85] Commercial mines use hired security guards, some of whom are migrant workers from Nepal to patrol mines with dogs seeking workers who may be smuggling gems out of their operations. It should be noted that these Nepali guards themselves, as migrant workers, could be at risk of TIP themselves as Nepali security guards have been noted to be in other contexts.[86]
Tobacco
TOBACCO OVERVIEW
Over 60 percent of the Zambian population relies on agriculture for their livelihood and tobacco is one of Zambia’s key agricultural export crops (in addition to cotton, tea and coffee). As previously noted, Tobacco is one of the largest exports from Zambia, but Tobacco crops only employ .5 percent of small and medium-scale farmers.[87]
DOCUMENTED TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS RISKS FACTORS IN TOBACCO PRODUCTION
The U.S. Department of Labor has noted child labor in tobacco production.[88] Although tobacco is not noted specifically, the U.S. Department of State notes trafficking risk in agriculture. According to recent research, contract farmers who take loans from buyers for inputs end up earning less in profit than the total of their loan, leaving them in “debt cycles.” These farmers may be more likely to rely on low or unpaid vulnerable labor such as children. Hired workers have also been noted in smallholder tobacco production.[89]
Related Resources
Resources for Understanding Legal and Policy-Related Risk Factors
ABA Rule of Law Initiative Country Report: Zambia
Endnotes
[1] U.S. Department of State. Human Rights Report. 2019. https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/ZAMBIA-2019-HUMAN-RIGHTS-REPORT.pdf
[2] U.S. Department of State. Human Rights Report. 2019. https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/ZAMBIA-2019-HUMAN-RIGHTS-REPORT.pdf
[3] U.S. Department of State. Human Rights Report. 2019. https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/ZAMBIA-2019-HUMAN-RIGHTS-REPORT.pdf
[4] The World Bank. Data: Zambia. https://data.worldbank.org/country/zambia
[5] The World Bank. Overview: Zambia. https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/zambia/overview
[6] England, Andrew. “Zambia bears the brunt of China’s economic slowdown.” Financial Times. September 9, 2015. https://www.ft.com/content/065afc1e-556b-11e5-a28b-50226830d644.
[7] U.S. Department of State. Investment Climate Statement. 2020
[8] Central Intelligence Agency. The World Factbook: Zambia. 2021. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world- factbook/geos/za.html
[9] The World Bank. Overview: Zambia. https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/zambia/overview
[10] Central Intelligence Agency. The World Factbook: Zambia. 2021. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world- factbook/geos/za.html
[11] United Nations Development Program. Human Development Report Explanatory Note. 2020. https://hdr.undp.org/sites/all/themes/hdr_theme/country-notes/ZMB.pdf
[12] International Food Policy Research Institute. Global Hunger Index. 2020. https://ghi.ifpri.org
[13] The World Bank. Data: International Migrant Stock. 2019. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SM.POP.TOTL.ZS?locations=ZM
[14] The World Bank. Data: International Migrant Stock. 2019. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SM.POP.TOTL.ZS?locations=ZM
[15] The World Bank. Data: International Migrant Stock. 2019. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SM.POP.TOTL.ZS?locations=ZM
[16] The World Bank. Data: International Migrant Stock. 2019. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SM.POP.TOTL.ZS?locations=ZM
[17] UNHCR. Zambia. 2019. https://www.unhcr.org/afr/zambia.html?query=Zambia
[18] UNHCR. Zambia. 2019. https://www.unhcr.org/afr/zambia.html?query=Zambia
[19] International Trade Center. Trade Map. www.trademap.org.
[20] U.S. Department of State. Zambia 2019 Human Rights Report. 2019. https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/ZAMBIA-2019-HUMAN-RIGHTS-REPORT.pdf
[21] U.S. Department of State. Zambia 2019 Human Rights Report. 2019. https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/ZAMBIA-2019-HUMAN-RIGHTS-REPORT.pdf
[22] U.S. Department of State. Zambia 2019 Human Rights Report. 2019. https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/ZAMBIA-2019-HUMAN-RIGHTS-REPORT.pdf
[23] U.S. Department of State. Zambia 2019 Human Rights Report. 2019. https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/ZAMBIA-2019-HUMAN-RIGHTS-REPORT.pdf
[24] U.S. Department of State. Zambia 2019 Human Rights Report. 2019. https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/ZAMBIA-2019-HUMAN-RIGHTS-REPORT.pdf
[25] U.S. Department of State. Zambia 2019 Human Rights Report. 2019. https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/ZAMBIA-2019-HUMAN-RIGHTS-REPORT.pdf
[26] U.S. Department of State. Zambia 2019 Human Rights Report. 2019. https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/ZAMBIA-2019-HUMAN-RIGHTS-REPORT.pdf
[27] U.S. Department of State. Zambia 2019 Human Rights Report. 2019. https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/ZAMBIA-2019-HUMAN-RIGHTS-REPORT.pdf
[28] U.S. Department of State. Zambia 2019 Human Rights Report. 2019. https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/ZAMBIA-2019-HUMAN-RIGHTS-REPORT.pdf
[29] U.S. Department of State. Zambia 2019 Human Rights Report. 2019. https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/ZAMBIA-2019-HUMAN-RIGHTS-REPORT.pdf
[30] U.S. Department of State. Zambia 2019 Human Rights Report. 2019. https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/ZAMBIA-2019-HUMAN-RIGHTS-REPORT.pdf
[31] U.S. Department of State. Zambia 2019 Human Rights Report. 2019. https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/ZAMBIA-2019-HUMAN-RIGHTS-REPORT.pdf
[32] U.S. Department of State. Zambia 2019 Human Rights Report. 2019. https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/ZAMBIA-2019-HUMAN-RIGHTS-REPORT.pdf
[33] U.S. Department of State. Zambia 2019 Human Rights Report. 2019. https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/ZAMBIA-2019-HUMAN-RIGHTS-REPORT.pdf
[34] U.S. Department of State. Zambia 2019 Human Rights Report. 2019. https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/ZAMBIA-2019-HUMAN-RIGHTS-REPORT.pdf
[35] U.S. Department of State. Zambia 2019 Human Rights Report. 2019. https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/ZAMBIA-2019-HUMAN-RIGHTS-REPORT.pdf
[36] U.S. Department of Labor. Bureau of International Labor Affairs. Child Labor and Forced Reports: Zambia. 2019. https://www.dol.gov/sites/dolgov/files/ILAB/child_labor_reports/tda2019/Zambia.pdf
[37] U.S. Department of Labor. Bureau of International Labor Affairs. Child Labor and Forced Reports: Zambia. 2019.
https://www.dol.gov/sites/dolgov/files/ILAB/child_labor_reports/tda2019/Zambia.pdf
[38] U.S. Department of Labor. Bureau of International Labor Affairs. Child Labor and Forced Reports: Zambia. 2019.
https://www.dol.gov/sites/dolgov/files/ILAB/child_labor_reports/tda2019/Zambia.pdf
[39] Freedom House. Freedom in the World. 2020. https://freedomhouse.org/country/zambia/freedom-world/2020
[40] U.S. Department of State. Zambia 2019 Human Rights Report. 2019. https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/ZAMBIA-2019-HUMAN-RIGHTS-REPORT.pdf
[41] U.S. Department of State. Zambia 2019 Human Rights Report. 2019. https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/ZAMBIA-2019-HUMAN-RIGHTS-REPORT.pdf
[42] International Labor Organization. Ratifications for Zambia. https://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=NORMLEXPUB:11200:0::NO::P11200_COUNTRY_ID:103264
[43] U.S. Department of State. Investment Climate Statement for 2020: Zambia. 2020. https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-investment-climate-statements/zambia/
[44] U.S. Department of State. Investment Climate Statement for 2020: Zambia. 2020. https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-investment-climate-statements/zambia/
[45] The Fund for Peace. Fragile States Index. 2020. https://fundforpeace.org/fsi/data/
[46] Amnesty International. Annual Report. 2019. https://www.amnesty.org/download/Documents/AFR0113522020ENGLISH.PDF
[47] Amnesty International. Annual Report. 2019. https://www.amnesty.org/download/Documents/AFR0113522020ENGLISH.PDF
[48] The World Economic Forum. The Global Competitiveness Report. 2019.
[49] U.S. Department of State. Zambia 2019 Human Rights Report. 2019. https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/ZAMBIA-2019-HUMAN-RIGHTS-REPORT.pdf
[50] Transparency International. Corruption Perception Index. 2020. https://www.transparency.org/en/cpi/2020/index/zmb
[51] U.S. Department of State. Investment Climate Statement for 2020: Zambia. 2020. https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-investment-climate-statements/
[52] U.S. Department of State. Investment Climate Statement for 2020: Zambia. 2020. https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-investment-climate-statements/
[53] U.S. Department of State. Investment Climate Statement for 2020: Zambia. 2020. https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-investment-climate-statements/
[54] United Nations Development Program. Human Development Report Explanatory Note. 2020. https://hdr.undp.org/sites/all/themes/hdr_theme/country-notes/ZMB.pdf
[55] United Nations Development Program. Human Development Report Explanatory Note. 2020.
[56] United Nations Development Program. Human Development Report Explanatory Note. 2020. https://hdr.undp.org/sites/all/themes/hdr_theme/country-notes/ZMB.pdf
[57] United Nations Development Program. Human Development Report Explanatory Note. 2020. https://hdr.undp.org/sites/all/themes/hdr_theme/country-notes/ZMB.pdf
[58] United Nations Development Program. Gender Inequality Index. 2019. https://hdr.undp.org/en/composite/GII
[59] United Nations Development Program. Gender Inequality Index. 2019. https://hdr.undp.org/en/composite/GII
[60] United Nations Development Program. Gender Inequality Index. 2019. https://hdr.undp.org/en/composite/GII
[61] United Nations Development Program. Gender Inequality Index. 2019. https://hdr.undp.org/en/composite/GII
[62] Amnesty International. Human Rights in Africa. 2019. https://www.amnesty.org/download/Documents/AFR0113522020ENGLISH.PDF
[63] Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Gender and Land Rights Database. https://www.fao.org/gender-landrights-database/country-profiles/countries-list/general-introduction/en/?country_iso3=ZMB
[64] U.S. Department of State. Investment Climate Statement. 2020. https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-investment-climate-statements/zambia/
[65] U.S. Department of State. Investment Climate Statement. 2020. https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-investment-climate-statements/zambia/
[66] Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Gender and Land Rights Database. https://www.fao.org/gender-landrights-database/country-profiles/countries-list/general-introduction/en/?country_iso3=ZMB
[67] Onishi, Norimitus. “Climate change hits hard in Zambia, an African success story.” The New York Times. 2016. https://www.nytimes.com/2016/04/13/world/africa/zambia-drought-climate-change-economy.html?_r=0
[68] Surpell, Namwali. “Learning From the Kariba Dam.” The New York Times. 2020. https://www.nytimes.com/2016/04/13/world/africa/zambia-drought-climate-change-economy.html?_r=0
[69] Onishi, Norimitus. “Climate change hits hard in Zambia, an African success story.” The New York Times. 2016. https://www.nytimes.com/2016/04/13/world/africa/zambia-drought-climate-change-economy.html?_r=0
[70] Onishi, Norimitus. “Climate change hits hard in Zambia, an African success story.” The New York Times. 2016. https://www.nytimes.com/2016/04/13/world/africa/zambia-drought-climate-change-economy.html?_r=0
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Trafficking Risk in Sub-Saharan African Supply Chains
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